Table 2 Comparison between traditional oncolytic viruses and nanoparticle-delivered vGenomes

Immunogenicity

High (capsid-triggered immunity)

Low (nanocarrier shielding)

Bommareddy and Kaufman 2018; Li et al. 2020; Kwon et al. 2011)

Scalability

Low (live virus production)

High (synthetic nanocarriers)

Gavas et al. 2021; Surendran et al. 2018; Schoenmaker et al. 2021)

Tumor targeting

Limited (natural tropism)

Enhanced (ligand-mediated targeting)

Grünwald et al. 2013; Jung et al. 2017; Surendran et al. 2018)

Delivery efficiency

High (direct infection)

Moderate (release-dependent)

Kwon et al. 2011; Fu and Zhang 2001)

Safety

Moderate (off-target risks)

High (tumor-selective release)

Li et al. 2020; Kwon et al. 2011)