Fig. 3

Illustration of various nanoparticle formulations for drug delivery. A Metallic nanoparticle—inorganic nanoparticles composed of metallic elements; B Polymeric nanoparticle—composed of biocompatible and biodegradable polymers; C Liposome—a vesicular system made of a phospholipid bilayer with an aqueous core; D Nanoemulsion oil-in-water (O/W)– A colloidal dispersion of oil droplets stabilized by a surfactant layer. Though nanoemulsions are lipid-based systems, their structure differs significantly from lipid nanoparticles as they lack a solid or semi-solid lipid matrix. E Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP)—A modern lipid-based nanocarrier designed primarily for nucleic acid delivery (e.g., mRNA). Unlike Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs), composed of solid lipids, and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), which combine solid and liquid lipids, LNPs may include ionizable lipids, cholesterol, and PEG-lipids. These components enable efficient encapsulation and delivery of genetic materials