Fig. 1

Scheme of the proposed NPs and stimuli-responsive treatment. A Preparation of the biomimetic nanoparticles: ZnO nanocrystals were synthesized, coated with a self-assembling lipid formulation (L-ZnO), adopting a solvent-exchange method, and then conjugated with the targeting peptide (YSA) bound to a functional lipid (Conte et al. 2023; Cauda et al. 2010); B Experimental setting of the stimuli-responsive therapy for 2D monolayer setting of CRC cells (HT-29 cell line): cells were seeded and administered with L-ZnO or YSA-L-ZnO the first day, then at 24, 48 and 72 h they were subjected to multiple shock waves treatments (SWT) and their viability was evaluated 96 h after cell seeding; C) Experimental setting in 3D spheroids of CRC (HT-29 cell line). Cells were seeded and left to grow for 6 days; at day 6, the spheroids received the L-ZnO or the YSA-L-ZnO treatment. Then, at days 7, 8 and 9, they were subjected to multiple shock waves treatments (SWT); finally, the spheroid viability was evaluated at day 10